Adolescent Pregnancy in America: Causes and Responses

Adolescent pregnancy has oc­ curred throughout America’s his­ tory. Only in recent years has it been deemed an urgent crisis, as more young adolescent mothers give birth outside of marriage. Atrisk circumstances associated with adolescent pregnancy in­ clude medical and health compli­ cations, less schooling and higher dropout rates, lower career aspi­ rations, and a life encircled by poverty. While legislation for ca­ reer and technical education has focused attention on special needs populations, the definition has been broadened to include single parents. This article en­ compasses a brief history of ado­ lescent pregnancy in America, factors influencing adolescent pregnancy, and the conse­ quences associated with adoles­ cent pregnancy. The conclusion includes implications for educa­ tors, researchers, and practitioners. Introduction While slightly decreasing in rates in recent years, adolescent pregnancy continues to be prevalent in the United States, with nearly one million teenage females becoming pregnant each year (Meade & Ickovics, 2005; National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 2003; Sarri & Phillips, 2004). The country’s adolescent pregnancy rate re­ mains the highest among west­ ern industrialized nations, with 4 of every 10 pregnancies occur­ ring in women younger than age 20 (Dangal, 2006; Farber, 2003; SmithBattle, 2003; Spear, 2004). Despite a 21% decline in the rate of pregnancy among older ado­ lescents between ages 15 and 19, nearly 12,000 adolescent fe­ males under age 15 become pregnant each year (National Campaign to Prevent Teen Preg­ nancy, 2003; Rothenberg & Weissman, 2002; Sexuality In­ formation & Education Council of the United States [SIECUS], 2002). Adolescent pregnancy and childbearing are national prob­ lems that affect the community and society at large (Spear, 2004). Adolescent mothers be­ come economically dependent due to their decreased educa­ tional attainment, the decision to keep and raise their children, subsequent high fertility rates, and greater occurrences of single-parent families (Brindis & Philliber, 2003; Farber, 2003). Not only is adolescent pregnancy economically costly, it poses various social consequences for teen mothers. Pregnancy is one of the reasons commonly cited by female secondary students for dropping out of high school (Brindis & Philliber, 2003). Rothenberg and Weissman (2002) found that 7 out of 10 fe­ males who became adolescent mothers did not graduate from high school. Less than one-third of adolescent females giving birth before age 18 ever complete high school, and the younger the pregnant adolescents are, the less likely they are to complete high school (Brindis & Philliber, 2003; Koshar, 2001). Nationally, about 25% of adolescent moth­ ers have a second baby within one year of their first baby, leav­ ing the prospect of high school graduation improbable. How­ ever, if a parenting female can delay a second pregnancy, she becomes less at risk for dropping out of school and her chance of finishing high school increases (Kreinin, 1998). Research reveals many ado­ lescent females become preg­ nant intentionally because they see no other life goals within their reach (Winter, 1997). Plagued by poor school perfor­ mance and low self-esteem, they have no realistic expectations about education or occupations; thus, pregnancy is viewed as an alternative path to economic in­ dependence and adult status (Brown & Barbosa, 2001; Farber, 2003; Rothenberg & Weissman, 2002; Turner, 2004). Usually adolescents who become teen mothers are already expe­ riencing academic difficulties in school, have low educational expectations, and are not confi­ dent they will graduate from high school, or are attempting to escape abusive home situa­ tions (Coles, 2005; Koshar, 2001). Pursuing higher educa­ tion or a career is not reason­ ably within their reach, and they may experience feelings of hope­ lessness or helplessness regard­ ing their future (Rothenberg & Weissman, 2002). Coupled with a lack of positive role models and impoverished living situations, 5 The Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education adolescent females decide to be­ come pregnant or they “drift” into pregnancy, as this decision appears to be their best option (Brindis & Philliber, 2003; Rothenberg & Weissman, 2002; Winter, 1997). It is equally im­ portant to recognize that adoles­ cent pregnancy can be a posi­ tive life choice for females from certain ethnic or social groups (Tripp & Viner, 2005). Adolescent Pregnancy in Early America While many Americans have become increasingly concerned with the problem of teenage pregnancy over the past three decades, the truth is that teen­ age pregnancy has been a soci­ etal concern for more than three centuries (Luker, 1996). In pre­ vious centuries, adolescent pregnancy and the problems surrounding it were not specific to any age group, but instead were treated as part of broader social issues. Only since the 1970s has the issue of unwed motherhood become associated with teenagers (Luker, 1996). Subsequently, teenage preg­ nancy has gripped the attention of educators, policymakers, and the public, hence, being deemed an urgent crisis not only for the young mother and her child, but for society as well (Farber, 2003; Furstenberg Jr., 1991; Manlove, 1998; Spear, 2004). In the Puritan communities of early North America, it was not unusual for an adolescent female to be a wife and mother because she was considered to be mature. Throughout the co­ lonial period, the incidence of young motherhood and of outof-wedlock births posed an eco­ nomic burden on communities. In both the Puritan and colonial times, young mothers were pun­ ished, hastily married off, and considered immoral by the church (Farber, 2003; Luker, 1996). The nineteenth century witnessed a decline in premari­ tal pregnancies, which was par­ tially attributed to greater church participation and more emphasis on self-control and self-discipline (Farber, 2003). Even into the mid-twentieth century, one-fourth of all Ameri­ can women were mothers before age 20. However, almost all ado­ lescent mothers were married before the arrival of their babies, or they succumbed to the pres­ sure to drop out of school to con­ ceal the pregnancy (Hofferth, Reid, & Mott, 2001; Hymowitz, 1997; Luker, 1996). If adolescent pregnancy and childbearing have been so com­ mon throughout American his­ tory, why have these issues re­ ceived such mounting attention and concern in recent years? Adolescent pregnancy and early marriage among teenagers were more accepted in the 1950s be­ cause the young girl usually married the baby’s father to le­ gitimize the birth (SmithBattle, 2003; Zero Population Growth, 1997). As long as the end result of a premarital adolescent preg­ nancy was marriage, the issue remained virtually invisible to soci­ ety (Farber, 2003; Furstenberg Jr., 1991; Hymowitz, 1997). In fact, it was not until the radical social changes of the 1960s that ado­ lescent pregnancy became a more prominent and socially dis­ turbing trend (Cherry, Dillon, & Rugh, 2001). In the 1960s, ado­ lescents began having sexual intercourse at an earlier age and rejected hasty marriages to le­ gitimize a birth, opting instead to remain in school (Furstenberg Jr., 1991). The country saw a 50% increase in the birth rate among unwed teenagers from 1960 to 1975, and the number of births to unmarried teenagers between ages 15 to 19 quadrupled from 1960 to 1992 (Furstenberg Jr.; Hogan, Sun, & Cornwell, 2000). Today, while premarital sex is not condoned, nearly 47% of secondary students have re­ ported being sexually active be­ fore marriage (Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2004; Santelli et al., 2004; Zero Population Growth, 1997). De­ spite high rates of adolescent pregnancy, the majority of American adults still believe teens should not be sexually active, non-marital childbearing is unacceptable, and unwed adolescent mothers are viewed in a negative manner (Hofferth et al., 2001; National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 2003; Zero Population Growth, 1997). This position is substan­ tiated by a recent study of ado­ lescent females who reported having negative views toward teen motherhood (Turner, 2004). Factors Influencing Adolescent Pregnancy For years researchers have ex­ amined risk factors related to adolescent pregnancy. Charac­ teristics such as family struc­ ture, age at first intercourse, goals, and child sexual abuse have been associated with ado­ lescent pregnancy (Farber, 2003; McCullough & Scherman, 1991; Stewart, 2003; Xie, Cairns, & Cairns, 2001).